System logic Abstract: differenze tra le versioni

Versione delle 09:22, 30 dic 2025

Masticationpedia

Article by: Gianni Frisardi· Giorgio Cruccu· Alice Bisirri

Abstract: This Open Access abstract introduces the conceptual transition from classical diagnostic reasoning to a “System Logic” approach in medicine and dentistry. The chapter argues that the historical reliance on either binary statements (true/false) or purely probabilistic statements (high likelihood) becomes fragile when clinical reality is complex, multi-layered, and time-dependent. To reduce differential diagnostic error, two pillars are proposed: (1) the disciplined use of clinical indices as objective reference points, and (2) a revised logic of medical language capable of representing uncertainty without collapsing into ambiguity.

Clinical indices (constants, equations, scores, and laboratory composite measures) are useful because they transform heterogeneous observations into measurable, comparable outputs. However, the chapter highlights a critical limit: an index can be reliable inside its intended context yet misleading when exported beyond that context. Orthodontic indices such as PAR (Peer Assessment Rating) can quantify deviation from a “normal” occlusion model, but they cannot automatically validate a functional normocclusion, because function depends on hierarchical biological levels (neuromotor control, sensory feedback, adaptation, and systemic constraints). The chapter therefore uses orthodontics as an example of how “objective numbers” still require a correct definition of the system boundaries and observables.

The second pillar concerns language itself. Classical logic is too rigid for living systems because it forces the clinician to decide as if reality were crisp, while many clinical predicates are gradual: pain intensity, dysfunction, fatigue, “almost normal” neuromotor patterns, partial recovery, early-stage pathology, and so on. Probabilistic reasoning improves flexibility but depends critically on the knowledge base available in that specific specialist context. For these reasons, the chapter connects medical reasoning to fuzzy logic as a bridge toward System Logic: uncertainty must be encoded formally, not hidden under vague wording.

System Logic is then anchored to Systems Theory (general system theory): a system is modeled through inputs, state variables, and measurable outputs evolving over time. In the masticatory field, this framework is made practical by moving from overused and often weak observables (e.g., interferential EMG patterns) toward system-level electrophysiological responses evoked by controlled triggers. Root-MEPs (trigeminal motor evoked potentials) are presented as an example of a system output that can reveal pathological restructuring earlier and more reliably than surface proxies. The chapter’s underlying message is clinical and ethical: when diagnostic uncertainty persists, the correct strategy is not to simplify reality, but to model it at the appropriate hierarchical level—so that early diagnosis becomes possible and preventable harm is reduced.

Three questions (Open Access)

«Why are clinical indices necessary but also potentially misleading in dentistry?»
(Because an index can be valid inside its intended context (what it truly measures) but misleading when used to “prove” broader claims (e.g., equating alignment scores with functional normocclusion). The chapter insists that indices must match the correct system level and observables.)

«What is the limit of classical and probabilistic logic when applied to living systems?»
(Classical logic is too rigid (true/false) for gradual predicates; probabilistic logic depends strongly on the specialist knowledge base and can fail when contexts merge or when uncertainty is not purely stochastic. The chapter motivates a formal treatment of “elastic” clinical predicates and contextual knowledge.)

«Why are Root-MEPs presented as an example of System Logic applied clinically?»
(Because they treat the masticatory system as a real system with inputs (trigger) and outputs (latency/amplitude), allowing objective comparison across epochs and earlier detection of pathological restructuring than proxy observables such as interferential EMG.)

Access to full chapter

Full chapter available for Approved Members

To read the complete chapter (figures, formal models, and full clinical reasoning), please access via LinkedIn.

<a href="/oauth/linkedin-login.php?returnTo=/wiki/System_logic" style="display:inline-block; padding:10px 14px; border-radius:8px; text-decoration:none; font-weight:700; background:#0a66c2; color:#fff;"> Apply via LinkedIn </a>

Bibliography & references

Xiao W, Yang Y, Shi J, Xu J, Zhu J, «The diagnostic efficacy and predictive value of combined lipoprotein laboratory indexes for atherosclerosis», in J Pak Med Assoc, 2020».
PMID:33177739

Ferraro D, Bedin R, Natali P, Franciotta D, Smolik K, Santangelo M, Immovilli P, Camera V, Vitetta F, Gastaldi M, Trenti T, Meletti S, Sola P, «Kappa Index versus CSF Oligoclonal Bands in Predicting Multiple Sclerosis and Infectious/Inflammatory CNS Disorders», in Diagnostics (Basel), MDPI, 2020».
PMID:33096861 - PMCID:PMC7589948
DOI:10.3390/diagnostics10100856
Template:OAref

Kayadibi H, Yilmaz B, Ozgur Yeniova A, Koseoglu H, Simsek Z, «Development and evaluation of a novel noninvasive index for predicting significant fibrosis, advanced fibrosis, and cirrhosis in patients with chronic hepatitis B infection», in Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2021».
PMID:33177385
DOI:10.1097/MEG.0000000000001973

Sfondrini MF, Zampetti P, Luscher G, Gandini P, Gandía-Franco JL, Scribante A, «Orthodontic Treatment and Healthcare Goals: Evaluation of Multibrackets Treatment Results Using PAR Index (Peer Assessment Rating)», in Healthcare (Basel), MDPI, 2020».
PMID:33182796 - PMCID:PMC7711869
DOI:10.3390/healthcare8040473
Template:OAref

Dyken RA, Sadowsky PL, Hurst D, «Orthodontic outcomes assessment using the peer assessment rating index», in Angle Orthod, 2001».
PMID:11407767
DOI:<0164:OOAUTP>2.0.CO;2 10.1043/0003-3219(2001)071<0164:OOAUTP>2.0.CO;2

Richmond S, Shaw WC, O’Brien KD, Buchanan IB, Jones R, Stephens CD, Roberts CT, Andrews M, «The development of the PAR Index (Peer Assessment Rating): reliability and validity», in Eur J Orthod, Oxford University Press, 1992, Oxford UK».
PMID:1582457
DOI:10.1093/ejo/14.2.125

Onyeaso CO, BeGole EA, «Associations between pretreatment age and treatment time with orthodontic treatment outcome: A comparison by means of two orthodontic indices», in Hell Orthod Rev, MDPI, 2008, Basel, Switzerland».
Template:OAref

Hickman JH, «Directional edgewise orthodontic approach. 5», in J Clin Orthod, 1975».
PMID:1054697

Firestone AR, Häsler RU, Ingervall B, «Treatment results in dental school orthodontic patients in 1983 and 1993», in Angle Orthod, 1997».
PMID:10022180
DOI:<0019:TRIDSO>2.3.CO;2 10.1043/0003-3219(1999)069<0019:TRIDSO>2.3.CO;2

Cook DR, Harris EF, Vaden JL, «Comparison of university and private-practice orthodontic treatment outcomes with the American Board of Orthodontics objective grading system», in Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop».
PMID:15953896
DOI:10.1016/j.ajodo.2004.12.014

Ramanathan C, «PAR index in the evaluation of the stability of the orthodontic treatment results. A review», in Acta Medica (Hradec Králové), 2006».
PMID:17438831
DOI:10.14712/18059694.2017.133

Pangrazio-Kulbersh V, Kaczynski R, Shunock M, «Early treatment outcome assessed by the Peer Assessment Rating index», in Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop, 1999».
PMID:10229887
DOI:10.1016/s0889-5406(99)70277-5

Templeton KM, Powell R, Moore MB, Williams AC, Sandy R, «Are the Peer Assessment Rating Index and the Index of Treatment Complexity, Outcome, and Need suitable measures for orthognathic outcomes?», in Eur J Orthod, Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Orthodontics Society, 2006, Oxford UK».
PMID:16648208
DOI:10.1093/ejo/cji120

Angst C, Eliades T, Papageorgiou SN, «Stability of occlusal outcome during long-term retention: the time-dependent variation of the American Board of Orthodontics index», in Eur J Orthod, Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich, 2021, Zurich, Switzerland».
PMID:32144422
DOI:10.1093/ejo/cjaa004

Lyotard N, Hans M, Nelson S, Valiathan M, «Short-term postorthodontic changes in the absence of retention», in Angle Orthod, 2010».
PMID:20677953 - PMCID:PMC8929484
DOI:10.2319/010210-7.1

Little RM, «Stability and relapse of dental arch alignment», in Br J Orthod, 1990».
PMID:2207055
DOI:10.1179/bjo.17.3.235

Reitan K, Kvam E, «Comparative behavior of human and animal tissue during experimental tooth movement», in Angle Orthod, 1971».
PMID:4992550
DOI:<0001:CBOHAA>2.0.CO;2 10.1043/0003-3219(1971)041<0001:CBOHAA>2.0.CO;2

Thilander B, «Dentoalveolar development in subjects with normal occlusion. A longitudinal study between the ages of 5 and 31 years», in Eur J Orthod, Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Orthodontic Society, 2009, Göteborg, Sweden».
PMID:19304760
DOI:10.1093/ejo/cjn124

Behrents RG, Harris EF, Vaden JL, Williams RA, Kemp DH, «Relapse of orthodontic treatment results: growth as an etiologic factor», in J Charles H. Tweed Int Found, 1989».
PMID:2634695

Lang G, Alfter G, Göz G, Lang GH, «Retention and stability--taking various treatment parameters into account», in J Orofac Orthop, 2002».
PMID:11974450
DOI:10.1007/s00056-002-0036-2

Steinnes J, Johnsen G, Kerosuo H, «Stability of orthodontic treatment outcome in relation to retention status: An 8-year follow-up», in Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop, 2017».
PMID:28554448
DOI:10.1016/j.ajodo.2016.10.032

de Freitas KM, Janson G, de Freitas MR, Pinzan A, Henriques JF, Pinzan-Vercelino CR, «Influence of the quality of the finished occlusion on postretention occlusal relapse», in Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop, 2007».
PMID:17920494
DOI:10.1016/j.ajodo.2007.02.051

Hoybjerg AJ, Currier GF, Kadioglu O, «Evaluation of 3 retention protocols using the American Board of Orthodontics cast and radiograph evaluation», in Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop, 2013».
PMID:23810041
DOI:10.1016/j.ajodo.2013.02.022

Nett BC, Huang GJ, «Long-term posttreatment changes measured by the American Board of Orthodontics objective grading system», in Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop, Elsevier Inc, 2005».
PMID:15821689
DOI:10.1016/j.ajodo.2004.03.029

Casko JS, Vaden JL, Kokich VG, Damone J, James RD, Cangialosi TJ, Riolo ML, «Objective grading system for dental casts and panoramic radiographs», in Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop, 1998».
PMID:9810056
DOI:10.1016/s0889-5406(98)70179-9

von Bertalanffy L, «General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications», George Braziller, 1968, New York».
ISBN: 978-0807604533
DOI:10.1001/archpsyc.1969.01740200123021

Reaz MB, Hussain MS, Mohd-Yasin F, «Techniques of EMG signal analysis: detection, processing, classification and applications (Correction)», in Biol Proced Online, 2006».
PMID:16799694 - PMCID:PMC1455479
DOI:10.1251/bpo115

Masci C, Ciarrocchi I, Spadaro A, Necozione S, Marci MC, Monaco A, «Does orthodontic treatment provide a real functional improvement? A case control study», in BMC Oral Health, BioMed Central Ltd, 2013».
PMID:24152806 - PMCID:PMC3827987
DOI:10.1186/1472-6831-13-57
Template:OAref

Moazzam AA, Habibian M, «Patients appearing to dental professionals with orofacial pain arising from intracranial tumors: a literature review», in Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol, 2012».
PMID:23036798
DOI:10.1016/j.oooo.2012.06.017

Merton PA, Morton HB, «Stimulation of the cerebral cortex in the intact human subject», in Nature, Springer Nature Limited, 1980».
PMID:7374773
DOI:10.1038/285227a0

{{cita libro | autore = Cruccu G | autore2 = Berardelli A | autore3 = Inghilleri M | autore4 = Manfredi M | titolo = Functional organization of the trigeminal motor system in man. A neurophysiological study | url = https://academic.oup.com/brain/article-abstract/

@@ Riga 1: / Riga 1: @@
-{{main menu}}
+{{main menu
+|link to German= Hauptseite
+|link to Spanish= Pàgina Principal
+|link to French= Page d'accueil
+|link to Italian= Introduzione
+|link to English= Introduction
+|no title=1
+}}
+<div class="chapter-content">
 {{ArtBy|
 | autore = Gianni Frisardi
@@ Riga 10: / Riga 18: @@
 }}
-<div class="chapter-content">
-'''Abstract:''' System Logic marks a shift in medical science when diagnosis must address living systems that are dynamic, layered, and only partially observable. This chapter explains why dentistry is being pushed toward System Logic by two converging pressures: the demand for objective clinical indices and the recognition that the logic of medical language is often inadequate for complex biological phenomena. Indices and constants, such as the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation for pH or laboratory-derived composite markers, provide measurable reference points for diagnosis and guidelines. Yet their validity is frequently debated because clinical reality is not exhausted by what a single index measures, and because interpretation, schools of thought, and hidden variables can distort what looks like “objective” data.
-Orthodontics provides a concrete illustration. Outcome assessment traditionally relied on clinician experience and subjective judgment, then moved toward standardized indices such as the Peer Assessment Rating (PAR) and objective grading systems for casts and radiographs. These tools quantify deviation from alignment, compare pre- and post-treatment states, and support quality improvement. However, an index may be accurate for alignment without being sufficient to define “normocclusion”, which is a functional and systemic condition. Relapse can occur even with apparently good occlusal finishing, and long-term changes can undermine cutoff-based excellence, reminding clinicians that indices are models, not reality.
+'''Abstract:''' This Open Access abstract introduces the conceptual transition from classical diagnostic reasoning to a “System Logic” approach in medicine and dentistry. The chapter argues that the historical reliance on either binary statements (true/false) or purely probabilistic statements (high likelihood) becomes fragile when clinical reality is complex, multi-layered, and time-dependent. To reduce differential diagnostic error, two pillars are proposed: (1) the disciplined use of clinical indices as objective reference points, and (2) a revised logic of medical language capable of representing uncertainty without collapsing into ambiguity.
+Clinical indices (constants, equations, scores, and laboratory composite measures) are useful because they transform heterogeneous observations into measurable, comparable outputs. However, the chapter highlights a critical limit: an index can be reliable inside its intended context yet misleading when exported beyond that context. Orthodontic indices such as PAR (Peer Assessment Rating) can quantify deviation from a “normal” occlusion model, but they cannot automatically validate a functional normocclusion, because function depends on hierarchical biological levels (neuromotor control, sensory feedback, adaptation, and systemic constraints). The chapter therefore uses orthodontics as an example of how “objective numbers” still require a correct definition of the system boundaries and observables.
-This tension connects directly to language logic. Classical logic forces bivalent conclusions (true/false), while probabilistic reasoning often becomes meaningful only inside narrow specialist contexts; both can oversimplify signals that are context-dependent, driven by feedback, and sometimes non-deterministic. The chapter therefore extends the previous motivation for fuzzy logic: instead of separating specialist know-how, System Logic encourages the superimposition of interdisciplinary contexts, so that complex clinical phenomena can be described with elastic but formal rules.
+The second pillar concerns language itself. Classical logic is too rigid for living systems because it forces the clinician to decide as if reality were crisp, while many clinical predicates are gradual: pain intensity, dysfunction, fatigue, “almost normal” neuromotor patterns, partial recovery, early-stage pathology, and so on. Probabilistic reasoning improves flexibility but depends critically on the knowledge base available in that specific specialist context. For these reasons, the chapter connects medical reasoning to fuzzy logic as a bridge toward System Logic: uncertainty must be encoded formally, not hidden under vague wording.
-Systems Theory is presented as the formal backbone for System Logic. A system is modeled through inputs, states, and outputs across ordered time. In the masticatory domain, the trigeminal motor system is treated as a black box: controlled triggers (transcranial electrical stimulation) act as inputs, and measurable responses (latency and amplitude) define outputs. The chapter contrasts routine interferential EMG, whose reliability and diagnostic correlation with TMD, orofacial pain, and malocclusion remain contested, with evoked-potential methods that embody system behavior and expose higher-level dysfunction.
+System Logic is then anchored to Systems Theory (general system theory): a system is modeled through inputs, state variables, and measurable outputs evolving over time. In the masticatory field, this framework is made practical by moving from overused and often weak observables (e.g., interferential EMG patterns) toward system-level electrophysiological responses evoked by controlled triggers. Root-MEPs (trigeminal motor evoked potentials) are presented as an example of a system output that can reveal pathological restructuring earlier and more reliably than surface proxies. The chapter’s underlying message is clinical and ethical: when diagnostic uncertainty persists, the correct strategy is not to simplify reality, but to model it at the appropriate hierarchical level—so that early diagnosis becomes possible and preventable harm is reduced.
-Clinically, this approach aims to reduce differential diagnostic error, avoid unnecessary dental interventions in patients whose orofacial symptoms arise from neurological disease, and enable earlier, life-saving detection by grounding indices in system behavior and repeatable measurements. A worked example is the Root-MEP protocol: a sequence of progressively greater stimuli delivered at ordered times produces multiple averaged traces in which latency decreases and amplitude increases as input rises. Because the response is evoked at the trigeminal motor root level, it captures system integrity at a higher hierarchical level than the occlusal observable. Repeating the protocol across epochs allows comparison of the same system over time, turning a qualitative clinical impression into reproducible variables, and preparing the reader for later chapters on diagnostic modeling in practice.
+[[File:Bilateral Root-MEPs.jpg|thumb|center|520px|alt=Bilateral Root-MEPs|'''Figure 1:''' Bilateral Root-MEPs as a system-output example: trigeminal motor responses evoked by a controlled trigger.]]
 </div>
-[[File:Bilateral Root-MEPs.jpg|center|thumb|550px|alt=Bilateral Root-MEPs|'''Figure:''' Virtual segmentation of the Trigeminal Nervous System and annotation of the motor Root level from which the trigeminal Motor Evoked Potentials (Root-MEPs) are evoked.]]
+==Three questions (Open Access)==
+{{q2|
+'''Why are clinical indices necessary but also potentially misleading in dentistry?'''|
+Because an index can be valid inside its intended context (what it truly measures) but misleading when used to “prove” broader claims (e.g., equating alignment scores with functional normocclusion). The chapter insists that indices must match the correct system level and observables.
+}}
+{{q2|
+'''What is the limit of classical and probabilistic logic when applied to living systems?'''|
+Classical logic is too rigid (true/false) for gradual predicates; probabilistic logic depends strongly on the specialist knowledge base and can fail when contexts merge or when uncertainty is not purely stochastic. The chapter motivates a formal treatment of “elastic” clinical predicates and contextual knowledge.
+}}
+{{q2|
+'''Why are Root-MEPs presented as an example of System Logic applied clinically?'''|
+Because they treat the masticatory system as a real system with inputs (trigger) and outputs (latency/amplitude), allowing objective comparison across epochs and earlier detection of pathological restructuring than proxy observables such as interferential EMG.
+}}
-== Three questions (Open Access) ==
+==Access to full chapter==
-{{q2|Why are clinical indices necessary but insufficient in dentistry?|They provide measurable reference points, but they can miss hidden variables and functional system states; an index may quantify alignment without defining normocclusion or safety.}}
-{{q2|What does “System Logic” add to medical language?|It moves beyond rigid true/false and narrow probabilistic framing by integrating elastic formal reasoning (including fuzzy concepts) with interdisciplinary context and feedback.}}
-{{q2|Why are Root-MEPs an example of Systems Theory applied clinically?|They treat the trigeminal motor system as a black box: a controlled input (trigger) produces measurable outputs (latency, amplitude) that track system integrity and can be compared across time.}}
-== Access to full chapter ==
+<div class="access-box" style="margin:18px 0; padding:14px 16px; border:1px solid #d8d8d8; border-radius:10px; background:#fafafa;">
-<div class="access-box" style="text-align:center; margin:18px 0; padding:14px; border:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.15); border-radius:12px;">
+<div style="font-weight:700; margin-bottom:6px;">Full chapter available for Approved Members</div>
-<b>Full chapter available for Approved Members</b><br>
+<div style="margin-bottom:10px;">
-<span style="opacity:0.9;">Login to unlock the complete Book Index content.</span><br><br>
+To read the complete chapter (figures, formal models, and full clinical reasoning), please access via LinkedIn.
-<a class="pyr-link" href="/oauth/linkedin-login.php" style="display:inline-block; padding:10px 14px; border-radius:10px; text-decoration:none;">
+</div>
-✅ Login (Apply via LinkedIn)
+<div>
+<a href="/oauth/linkedin-login.php?returnTo=/wiki/System_logic" style="display:inline-block; padding:10px 14px; border-radius:8px; text-decoration:none; font-weight:700; background:#0a66c2; color:#fff;">
+Apply via LinkedIn
 </a>
+</div>
 </div>
@@ Riga 44: / Riga 67: @@
 * {{cita libro | autore = Xiao W | autore2 = Yang Y | autore3 = Shi J | autore4 = Xu J | autore5 = Zhu J | titolo = The diagnostic efficacy and predictive value of combined lipoprotein laboratory indexes for atherosclerosis | url = https://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+diagnostic+efficacy+and+predictive+value+of+combined+lipoprotein...-a0653913341 | opera = J Pak Med Assoc | anno = 2020 | PMID = 33177739 }}
-* {{cita libro | autore = Ferraro D | autore2 = Bedin R | autore3 = Natali P | autore4 = Franciotta D | autore5 = Smolik K | autore6 = Santangelo M | autore7 = Immovilli P | autore8 = Camera V | autore9 = Vitetta F | autore10 = Gastaldi M | autore11 = Trenti T | autore12 = Meletti S | autore13 = Sola P | titolo = Kappa Index versus CSF Oligoclonal Bands in Predicting Multiple Sclerosis and Infectious/Inflammatory CNS Disorders | url = https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/10/10/856/pdf?version=1603436673 | opera = Diagnostics (Basel) | anno = 2020 | DOI = 10.3390/diagnostics10100856 | PMID = 33096861 | PMCID = PMC7589948 | oaf = yes }}
-* {{cita libro | autore = Kayadibi H | autore2 = Yilmaz B | autore3 = Ozgur Yeniova A | autore4 = Koseoglu H | autore5 = Simsek Z | titolo = Development and evaluation of a novel noninvasive index for predicting significant fibrosis, advanced fibrosis, and cirrhosis in patients with chronic hepatitis B infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33177385/ | opera = Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. | anno = 2021 | DOI = 10.1097/MEG.0000000000001973 | PMID = 33177385 }}
-* {{cita web | titolo = Results in PubMed for "Temporomandibular disorders Index" | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22temporomandibular+disorders+index%22&filter=datesearch.y_1 | opera = PubMed | accesso = {{CURRENTYEAR}}-{{CURRENTMONTH}}-{{CURRENTDAY2}} }}
+* {{cita libro | autore = Ferraro D | autore2 = Bedin R | autore3 = Natali P | autore4 = Franciotta D | autore5 = Smolik K | autore6 = Santangelo M | autore7 = Immovilli P | autore8 = Camera V | autore9 = Vitetta F | autore10 = Gastaldi M | autore11 = Trenti T | autore12 = Meletti S | autore13 = Sola P | titolo = Kappa Index versus CSF Oligoclonal Bands in Predicting Multiple Sclerosis and Infectious/Inflammatory CNS Disorders | url = https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/10/10/856/pdf?version=1603436673 | opera = Diagnostics (Basel) | anno = 2020 | editore = MDPI | DOI = 10.3390/diagnostics10100856 | PMID = 33096861 | PMCID = PMC7589948 | oaf = yes }}
-* {{cita web | titolo = Results in PubMed for "Orthodontics Indexes" | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22orthodontics%20index%22&filter=simsearch2.ffrft&filter=datesearch.y_1 | opera = PubMed | accesso = {{CURRENTYEAR}}-{{CURRENTMONTH}}-{{CURRENTDAY2}} }}
+* {{cita libro | autore = Kayadibi H | autore2 = Yilmaz B | autore3 = Ozgur Yeniova A | autore4 = Koseoglu H | autore5 = Simsek Z | titolo = Development and evaluation of a novel noninvasive index for predicting significant fibrosis, advanced fibrosis, and cirrhosis in patients with chronic hepatitis B infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33177385/ | opera = Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol | anno = 2021 | DOI = 10.1097/MEG.0000000000001973 | PMID = 33177385 }}
+* {{cita libro | autore = Sfondrini MF | autore2 = Zampetti P | autore3 = Luscher G | autore4 = Gandini P | autore5 = Gandía-Franco JL | autore6 = Scribante A | titolo = Orthodontic Treatment and Healthcare Goals: Evaluation of Multibrackets Treatment Results Using PAR Index (Peer Assessment Rating) | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7711869/pdf/healthcare-08-00473.pdf | opera = Healthcare (Basel) | anno = 2020 | editore = MDPI | DOI = 10.3390/healthcare8040473 | PMID = 33182796 | PMCID = PMC7711869 | oaf = yes }}
-* {{cita libro | autore = Sfondrini MF | autore2 = Zampetti P | autore3 = Luscher G | autore4 = Gandini P | autore5 = Gandía-Franco JL | autore6 = Scribante A | titolo = Orthodontic Treatment and Healthcare Goals: Evaluation of Multibrackets Treatment Results Using PAR Index (Peer Assessment Rating) | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7711869/pdf/healthcare-08-00473.pdf | opera = Healthcare (Basel) | anno = 2020 | DOI = 10.3390/healthcare8040473 | PMID = 33182796 | PMCID = PMC7711869 | oaf = yes }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Dyken RA | autore2 = Sadowsky PL | autore3 = Hurst D | titolo = Orthodontic outcomes assessment using the peer assessment rating index | url = https://meridian.allenpress.com/angle-orthodontist/article/71/3/164/57522/Orthodontic-Outcomes-Assessment-Using-the-Peer | opera = Angle Orthod | anno = 2001 | DOI = 10.1043/0003-3219(2001)071<0164:OOAUTP>2.0.CO;2 | PMID = 11407767 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Richmond S | autore2 = Shaw WC | autore3 = O’Brien KD | autore4 = Buchanan IB | autore5 = Jones R | autore6 = Stephens CD | autore7 = Roberts CT | autore8 = Andrews M | titolo = The development of the PAR Index (Peer Assessment Rating): reliability and validity | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1582457/ | opera = Eur J Orthod | anno = 1992 | editore = Oxford University Press | città = Oxford UK | DOI = 10.1093/ejo/14.2.125 | PMID = 1582457 }}
-* {{cita libro | autore = Onyeaso CO | autore2 = BeGole EA | titolo = Associations between pretreatment age and treatment time with orthodontic treatment outcome: A comparison by means of two orthodontic indices | url = https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/8/4/473/pdf?version=1605228677 | opera = Hell Orthod. Rev | anno = 2008 | editore = MDPI | città = Basel, Switzerland | oaf = yes }}
-* {{cita libro | autore = Hickman JH | titolo = Directional edgewise orthodontic approach. 5 | opera = J Clin Orthod | anno = 1975 | PMID = 1054697 }}
+* {{cita libro | autore = Onyeaso CO | autore2 = BeGole EA | titolo = Associations between pretreatment age and treatment time with orthodontic treatment outcome: A comparison by means of two orthodontic indices | url = https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/8/4/473/pdf?version=1605228677 | opera = Hell Orthod Rev | anno = 2008 | editore = MDPI | città = Basel, Switzerland | oaf = yes }}
+* {{cita libro | autore = Hickman JH | titolo = Directional edgewise orthodontic approach. 5 | url =  | opera = J Clin Orthod | anno = 1975 | PMID = 1054697 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Firestone AR | autore2 = Häsler RU | autore3 = Ingervall B | titolo = Treatment results in dental school orthodontic patients in 1983 and 1993 | url = https://meridian.allenpress.com/angle-orthodontist/article-pdf/69/1/19/1374417/0003-3219(1999)069_0019_tridso_2_3_co_2.pdf | opera = Angle Orthod | anno = 1997 | DOI = 10.1043/0003-3219(1999)069<0019:TRIDSO>2.3.CO;2 | PMID = 10022180 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Cook DR | autore2 = Harris EF | autore3 = Vaden JL | titolo = Comparison of university and private-practice orthodontic treatment outcomes with the American Board of Orthodontics objective grading system | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15953896/ | opera = Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop | DOI = 10.1016/j.ajodo.2004.12.014 | PMID = 15953896 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Ramanathan C | titolo = PAR index in the evaluation of the stability of the orthodontic treatment results. A review | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6389456_PAR_Index_in_the_Evaluation_of_the_Stability_of_the_Orthodontic_Treatment_Results_A_Review/fulltext/5adbdc64a6fdcc29358a3491/PAR-Index-in-the-Evaluation-of-the-Stability-of-the-Orthodontic-Treatment-Results-A-Review.pdf | opera = Acta Medica (Hradec Králové) | anno = 2006 | DOI = 10.14712/18059694.2017.133 | PMID = 17438831 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Pangrazio-Kulbersh V | autore2 = Kaczynski R | autore3 = Shunock M | titolo = Early treatment outcome assessed by the Peer Assessment Rating index | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10229887/ | opera = Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop | anno = 1999 | DOI = 10.1016/s0889-5406(99)70277-5 | PMID = 10229887 }}
-* {{cita libro | autore = Templeton KM | autore2 = Powell R | autore3 = Moore MB | autore4 = Williams AC | autore5 = Sandy R | titolo = Are the Peer Assessment Rating Index and the Index of Treatment Complexity, Outcome, and Need suitable measures for orthognathic outcomes? | url = https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ann-Williams-4/publication/7133544_Are_the_Peer_Assessment_Rating_Index_and_the_Index_of_Treatment_Complexity_Outcome_and_Need_suitable_measures_for_orthognathic_outcomes/links/0046352fc8ff942845000000/Are-the-Peer-Assessment-Rating-Index-and-the-Index-of-Treatment-Complexity-Outcome-and-Need-suitable-measures-for-orthognathic-outcomes.pdf | opera = Eur J Orthod | anno = 2006 | DOI = 10.1093/ejo/cji120 | PMID = 16648208 }}
+* {{cita libro | autore = Templeton KM | autore2 = Powell R | autore3 = Moore MB | autore4 = Williams AC | autore5 = Sandy R | titolo = Are the Peer Assessment Rating Index and the Index of Treatment Complexity, Outcome, and Need suitable measures for orthognathic outcomes? | url = https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ann-Williams-4/publication/7133544_Are_the_Peer_Assessment_Rating_Index_and_the_Index_of_Treatment_Complexity_Outcome_and_Need_suitable_measures_for_orthognathic_outcomes/links/0046352fc8ff942845000000/Are-the-Peer-Assessment-Rating-Index-and-the-Index-of-Treatment-Complexity-Outcome-and-Need-suitable-measures-for-orthognathic-outcomes.pdf | opera = Eur J Orthod | anno = 2006 | editore = Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Orthodontics Society | città = Oxford UK | DOI = 10.1093/ejo/cji120 | PMID = 16648208 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Angst C | autore2 = Eliades T | autore3 = Papageorgiou SN | titolo = Stability of occlusal outcome during long-term retention: the time-dependent variation of the American Board of Orthodontics index | url = https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/194364/1/p01_ok.pdf | opera = Eur J Orthod | anno = 2021 | editore = Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich | città = Zurich, Switzerland | DOI = 10.1093/ejo/cjaa004 | PMID = 32144422 }}
-* {{cita libro | autore = Lyotard N | autore2 = Hans M | autore3 = Nelson S | autore4 = Valiathan M | titolo = Short-term postorthodontic changes in the absence of retention | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8929484/pdf/i0003-3219-80-6-1045.pdf | opera = Angle Orthod | anno = 2010 | DOI = 10.2319/010210-7.1 | PMID = 20677953 | PMCID = PMC8929484 | oaf = yes }}
-* {{cita libro | autore = Little RM | titolo = Stability and relapse of dental arch alignment | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2207055/ | opera = Br J Orthod. | anno = 1990 | editore = University of Washington, Seattle | città = Washington, USA | DOI = 10.1179/bjo.17.3.235 | PMID = 2207055 }}
+* {{cita libro | autore = Lyotard N | autore2 = Hans M | autore3 = Nelson S | autore4 = Valiathan M | titolo = Short-term postorthodontic changes in the absence of retention | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8929484/pdf/i0003-3219-80-6-1045.pdf | opera = Angle Orthod | anno = 2010 | DOI = 10.2319/010210-7.1 | PMID = 20677953 | PMCID = PMC8929484 }}
+* {{cita libro | autore = Little RM | titolo = Stability and relapse of dental arch alignment | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2207055/ | opera = Br J Orthod | anno = 1990 | DOI = 10.1179/bjo.17.3.235 | PMID = 2207055 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Reitan K | autore2 = Kvam E | titolo = Comparative behavior of human and animal tissue during experimental tooth movement | url = https://meridian.allenpress.com/angle-orthodontist/article-pdf/41/1/1/1368969/0003-3219(1971)041_0001_cbohaa_2_0_co_2.pdf | opera = Angle Orthod | anno = 1971 | DOI = 10.1043/0003-3219(1971)041<0001:CBOHAA>2.0.CO;2 | PMID = 4992550 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Thilander B | titolo = Dentoalveolar development in subjects with normal occlusion. A longitudinal study between the ages of 5 and 31 years | url = https://academic.oup.com/ejo/article-pdf/31/2/109/1273020/cjn124.pdf | opera = Eur J Orthod | anno = 2009 | editore = Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Orthodontic Society | città = Göteborg, Sweden | DOI = 10.1093/ejo/cjn124 | PMID = 19304760 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Behrents RG | autore2 = Harris EF | autore3 = Vaden JL | autore4 = Williams RA | autore5 = Kemp DH | titolo = Relapse of orthodontic treatment results: growth as an etiologic factor | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2634695/ | opera = J Charles H. Tweed Int Found | anno = 1989 | PMID = 2634695 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Lang G | autore2 = Alfter G | autore3 = Göz G | autore4 = Lang GH | titolo = Retention and stability--taking various treatment parameters into account | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11974450/ | opera = J Orofac Orthop | anno = 2002 | DOI = 10.1007/s00056-002-0036-2 | PMID = 11974450 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Steinnes J | autore2 = Johnsen G | autore3 = Kerosuo H | titolo = Stability of orthodontic treatment outcome in relation to retention status: An 8-year follow-up | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28554448/ | opera = Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop | anno = 2017 | DOI = 10.1016/j.ajodo.2016.10.032 | PMID = 28554448 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = de Freitas KM | autore2 = Janson G | autore3 = de Freitas MR | autore4 = Pinzan A | autore5 = Henriques JF | autore6 = Pinzan-Vercelino CR | titolo = Influence of the quality of the finished occlusion on postretention occlusal relapse | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17920494/ | opera = Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop | anno = 2007 | DOI = 10.1016/j.ajodo.2007.02.051 | PMID = 17920494 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Hoybjerg AJ | autore2 = Currier GF | autore3 = Kadioglu O | titolo = Evaluation of 3 retention protocols using the American Board of Orthodontics cast and radiograph evaluation | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23810041/ | opera = Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop | anno = 2013 | DOI = 10.1016/j.ajodo.2013.02.022 | PMID = 23810041 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Nett BC | autore2 = Huang GJ | titolo = Long-term posttreatment changes measured by the American Board of Orthodontics objective grading system | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15821689 | opera = Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop | anno = 2005 | editore = Elsevier Inc | DOI = 10.1016/j.ajodo.2004.03.029 | PMID = 15821689 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Casko JS | autore2 = Vaden JL | autore3 = Kokich VG | autore4 = Damone J | autore5 = James RD | autore6 = Cangialosi TJ | autore7 = Riolo ML | titolo = Objective grading system for dental casts and panoramic radiographs | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9810056 | opera = Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop | anno = 1998 | DOI = 10.1016/s0889-5406(98)70179-9 | PMID = 9810056 }}
-* {{Cita libro | autore = von Bertalanffy L | titolo = General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications | url = https://archive.org/details/generalsystemthe0000bert | anno = 1968 | editore = George Braziller | città = New York | p = 295 | ISBN = 978-0807604533 | DOI = 10.1001/archpsyc.1969.01740200123021 }}
-* {{cita web | titolo = Equifinality | url = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equifinality | opera = Wikipedia | accesso = {{CURRENTYEAR}}-{{CURRENTMONTH}}-{{CURRENTDAY2}} }}
+* {{cita libro | autore = von Bertalanffy L | titolo = General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications | url = https://archive.org/details/generalsystemthe0000bert | anno = 1968 | editore = George Braziller | città = New York | ISBN = 978-0807604533 | DOI = 10.1001/archpsyc.1969.01740200123021 }}
-* {{cita web | titolo = Emergent Behaviour on PubMed | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22emergent+behaviour%22&filter=datesearch.y_10 | opera = PubMed | accesso = {{CURRENTYEAR}}-{{CURRENTMONTH}}-{{CURRENTDAY2}} }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Reaz MB | autore2 = Hussain MS | autore3 = Mohd-Yasin F | titolo = Techniques of EMG signal analysis: detection, processing, classification and applications (Correction) | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1455479/pdf/bpo_v8_p11_m115.pdf | opera = Biol Proced Online | anno = 2006 | DOI = 10.1251/bpo115 | PMID = 16799694 | PMCID = PMC1455479 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Masci C | autore2 = Ciarrocchi I | autore3 = Spadaro A | autore4 = Necozione S | autore5 = Marci MC | autore6 = Monaco A | titolo = Does orthodontic treatment provide a real functional improvement? A case control study | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3827987/pdf/1472-6831-13-57.pdf | opera = BMC Oral Health | anno = 2013 | editore = BioMed Central Ltd | DOI = 10.1186/1472-6831-13-57 | PMID = 24152806 | PMCID = PMC3827987 | oaf = CC-BY 2 }}
 * {{cita libro | autore = Moazzam AA | autore2 = Habibian M | titolo = Patients appearing to dental professionals with orofacial pain arising from intracranial tumors: a literature review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23036798/ | opera = Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol | anno = 2012 | DOI = 10.1016/j.oooo.2012.06.017 | PMID = 23036798 }}
-* {{cita libro | autore = Merton PA | autore2 = Morton HB | titolo = Stimulation of the cerebral cortex in the intact human subject | url = https://www.nature.com/articles/285227a0.pdf | opera = Nature | anno = 1980 | DOI = 10.1038/285227a0 | PMID = 7374773 }}
-* {{cita libro | autore = Cruccu G | autore2 = Berardelli A | autore3 = Inghilleri M | autore4 = Manfredi M | titolo = Functional organization of the trigeminal motor system in man. A neurophysiological study | url = https://academic.oup.com/brain/article-abstract/112/5/1333/285684?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false | opera = Brain | anno = 1989 | DOI = 10.1093/brain/112.5.1333 | PMID = 2804615 }}
-* {{cita libro | autore = Haebeom L | autore2 = Hyunho K | autore3 = Jungkuk K | autore4 = Hwan-Sup O | autore5 = Young-Jae P | autore6 = Young-Bae P | titolo = Feasibility study of transfer function model on electrocardiogram change caused by acupuncture | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5299648/pdf/12906_2017_Article_1615.pdf | opera = BMC Complement Altern Med | anno = 2017 | DOI = 10.1186/s12906-017-1615-5 | PMID = 28178964 | PMCID = PMC5299648 | oaf = yes }}
-* {{cita libro | autore = Smith RJ | autore2 = Kamali G | autore3 = Hays M | autore4 = Coogan C | autore5 = Crone NE | autore6 = Kang JY | autore7 = Sarma SV | titolo = Transfer Function Models for the Localization of Seizure Onset Zone From Cortico-Cortical Evoked Potentials | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7758451/pdf/fneur-11-579961.pdf | opera = Front Neurol | anno = 2020 | editore = Frontiers in Neurology | DOI = 10.3389/fneur.2020.579961 | PMID = 33362689 | PMCID = PMC7758451 | oaf = y }}
-</onlyinclude>
-{{apm}}
+* {{cita libro | autore = Merton PA | autore2 = Morton HB | titolo = Stimulation of the cerebral cortex in the intact human subject | url = https://www.nature.com/articles/285227a0.pdf | opera = Nature | anno = 1980 | editore = Springer Nature Limited | DOI = 10.1038/285227a0 | PMID = 7374773 }}
-[[Category:Articles about logic of language]]
+* {{cita libro | autore = Cruccu G | autore2 = Berardelli A | autore3 = Inghilleri M | autore4 = Manfredi M | titolo = Functional organization of the trigeminal motor system in man. A neurophysiological study | url = https://academic.oup.com/brain/article-abstract/