Modifica di Bruxism (sezione)

===Trigeminal motor neuron pool evidences===
A synthetic extraction of the contents of the article by Jessica M D'Amico et al.,<ref name=":12" />, shows evidence that the discharge of neurons in the raphe nuclei, in the locus coeruleus, in the subcoeruleus and in A5/A7 cells, releases serotonin and norepinephrine and facilitates PIC (persistent internal ionic currents referred to as 'PIC') to the trigeminal motor neuron pool. These episodes increase during micro-awakenings (Leung and Mason 1999,<ref>{{cita libro 
 | autore = Leung CG
 | autore2 = Mason P
 | titolo = Physiological properties of raphe magnus neurons during sleep and walking
 | url = https://journals.physiology.org/doi/epdf/10.1152/jn.1999.81.2.584
 | volume = 
 | opera = J Neurophysiol
 | anno = 1999
 | editore = American Physiological Society
 | città = Rockville, Maryland, USA
 | ISBN = 
 | DOI = 10.1152/jn.1999.81.2.584
 | PMID = 10036262
 | PMCID = 
 | oaf = <!-- qualsiasi valore -->
 | LCCN = 
 | OCLC = 
 }}</ref> Sakai and Crochet 2001,<ref>{{cita libro 
 | autore = Sakai K
 | autore2 = Crochet S
 | titolo = Differentiation of presumed serotonergic dorsal raphe neurons in relation to behaviour and wake-sleep states
 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11457597/
 | volume = 
 | opera = Neuroscience
 | anno = 2001
 | editore = 
 | città = 
 | ISBN = 
 | DOI = 10.1016/s0306-4522(01)00103-8
 | PMID = 11457597
 | PMCID = 
 | oaf = <!-- qualsiasi valore -->
 | LCCN = 
 | OCLC = 
 }}</ref> Takahashi et al., 2010<ref>{{cita libro 
 | autore = Takahashi K
 | autore2 = Kayama Y
 | autore3 = Lin JS
 | autore4 = Sakai K
 | titolo = Locus coeruleus neuronal activity during the sleep-waking cycle in mice
 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20542093/
 | volume = 
 | opera = Neuroscience
 | anno = 2010
 | editore = 
 | città = 
 | ISBN = 
 | DOI = 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.06.009
 | PMID = 20542093
 | PMCID = 
 | oaf = <!-- qualsiasi valore -->
 | LCCN = 
 | OCLC = 
 }}</ref>). Individuals with bruxism experience an increase in the number of micro-awakenings during sleep (Kato et al. 2001,<ref>{{cita libro 
<nowiki> </nowiki><nowiki>|</nowiki> autore = Kato T
<nowiki> </nowiki><nowiki>|</nowiki> autore2 = Rompre PH
<nowiki> </nowiki><nowiki>|</nowiki> autore3 = Montplaisir JY
<nowiki> </nowiki><nowiki>|</nowiki> autore4 = Sessle BJ
<nowiki> </nowiki><nowiki>|</nowiki> autore5 = Lavigne GJ
<nowiki> </nowiki><nowiki>|</nowiki> titolo = Sleep bruxism: an oromotor activity secondary to microarousal
<nowiki> </nowiki><nowiki>|</nowiki> url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11706956
 | volume = 
 | opera = J Dent Res
 | anno = 2001
 | editore = 
 | città = 
 | ISBN = 
 | DOI = 10.1177/00220345010800101501
 | PMID = 11706956
 | PMCID = 
 | oaf = <!-- qualsiasi valore -->
 | LCCN = 
 | OCLC = 
 }</ref> 2003,<ref>Kato T, Montplaisir JY, Guitard F, Sessle BJ, Lavigne GJ. Evidence that experimentally induced sleep bruxism is a consequence of transient arousal. J Dent Res 82: 284–288, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref> 2011<ref>{{cita libro 
 | autore = Kato T
 | autore2 = Masuda Y
 | autore3 = Yoshida A
 | autore4 = Morimoto T
 | titolo = Masseter EMG activity during sleep and sleep bruxism
 | url = http://www.architalbiol.org/index.php/aib/article/download/149478/22205593
 | volume = 
 | opera = Arch Ital Biol
 | anno = 2011
 | editore = 
 | città = 
 | ISBN = 
 | DOI = 10.4449/aib.v149i4.1317
 | PMID = 22205593
 | PMCID = 
 | oaf = <!-- qualsiasi valore -->
 | LCCN = 
 | OCLC = 
 }}</ref>) with a probable increase in the monoaminergic drive towards trigeminal motor neurons. Accordingly, drugs such as serotonin reuptake inhibitors and amphetamines, which increase norepinephrine and serotonin levels, respectively, increase episodes of involuntary activity in bruxist participants (Lavigne et al. 2003,<ref>{{cita libro 
 | autore = Lavigne GJ
 | autore2 = Kato T
 | autore3 = Kolta A
 | autore4 = Sessle BJ
 | titolo = Neurobiological mechanisms involved in sleep bruxism
 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12764018/
 | volume = 
 | opera = Crit Rev Oral Biol Med
 | anno = 2003
 | editore = 
 | città = 
 | ISBN = 
 | DOI = 10.1177/154411130301400104
 | PMID = 12764018
 | PMCID = 
 | oaf = <!-- qualsiasi valore -->
 | LCCN = 
 | OCLC = 
 }}</ref> See and Tan 2003<ref>{{cita libro 
 | autore = See SJ
 | autore2 = Tan EK
 | titolo = Case Report: severe amphetamine-induced bruxism: treatment with botulinum toxin
 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12580870/
 | volume = 
 | opera = Acta Neurol Scand
 | anno = 2003
 | editore = 
 | città = 
 | ISBN = 
 | DOI = 10.1034/j.1600-0404.2003.02086.x
 | PMID = 12580870
 | PMCID = 
 | oaf = <!-- qualsiasi valore -->
 | LCCN = 
 | OCLC = 
 }}</ref>) and the amplitude of PICs in motor neurons of the limbs (D'Amico et al. 2013,<ref>{{cita libro 
 | autore = D'Amico JM
 | autore2 = Murray KC
 | autore3 = Li Y
 | autore4 = Chan KM
 | autore5 = Finlay MG
 | autore6 = Bennett DJ
 | autore7 = Gorassini Monica Ann
 | titolo = Constitutively-active 5HT2/α1 receptors facilitate muscle spasms after human spinal cord injury
 | url = https://journals.physiology.org/doi/epdf/10.1152/jn.00821.2012
 | volume = 
 | opera = J Neurophysiol
 | anno = 2013
 | editore = American Physiological Society
 | città = Rockville, Maryland, USA
 | ISBN = 
 | DOI = 
 | PMID = 
 | PMCID = 
 | oaf = <!-- qualsiasi valore -->
 | LCCN = 
 | OCLC = 
 }}</ref> Udina et al. 2010<ref>{{cita libro 
 | autore = Udina E
 | autore2 = D'Amico J
 | autore3 = Bergquist AJ
 | autore4 = Gorassini Monica Ann
 | titolo = Amphetamine increases persistent inward currents in human motoneurons estimated from paired motor unit activity
 | url = https://journals.physiology.org/doi/epdf/10.1152/jn.00734.2009
 | volume = 
 | opera = J Neurophysiol
 | anno = 2010
 | editore = American Physiological Society
 | città = Rockville, Maryland, USA 
 | ISBN = 
 | DOI = 10.1152/jn.00734.2009
 | PMID = 20053846
 | PMCID = PMC2887628
 | oaf = <!-- qualsiasi valore -->
 | LCCN = 
 | OCLC = 
 }}</ref>).

Again on the same neurobiological tenor of GABA and Glutamate, the consideration of Andrisani G.<ref>{{cita libro 
 | autore = Andrisani Giovanni
 | autore2 = Andrisani Giorgia
 | titolo = The neurophysiological basis of bruxism
 | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8273205/pdf/main.pdf
 | volume = 
 | opera = Heliyon
 | anno = 2021
 | editore = Elsevier
 | città = 
 | ISBN = 
 | DOI = 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07477
 | PMID = 34286138
 | PMCID = PMC8273205
 | oaf = y<!-- qualsiasi valore -->
 | LCCN = 
 | OCLC = 
 }}</ref> is expressed which leaves everyone somewhat surprised, namely 'the bruxism is not a parafunction, and it functions to activate the ascending reticular formation (ARAS) to regulate the loss of neurotransmitters such as noradrenaline, dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine and glutamate.

It emerged from another interesting study by M C Verhoeff et al.<ref>{{cita libro 
 | autore = Verhoeff MC
 | autore2 = Koutris M
 | autore3 = van Selms MKA
 | autore4 = Brandwijk AN
 | autore5 = Heres MS
 | autore6 = Berendse HW
 | autore7 = van Dijk KD
 | author8 = Lobbezoo F 
 | titolo = Is dopaminergic medication dose associated with self-reported bruxism in Parkinson's disease? A cross-sectional, questionnaire-based study
 | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8060196/pdf/784_2020_Article_3566.pdf
 | volume = 
 | opera = Clin Oral Investig
 | anno = 2021
 | editore = 
 | città = 
 | ISBN = 
 | DOI = 10.1007/s00784-020-03566-0
 | PMID = 32918624
 | PMCID = PMC8060196
 | oaf = <!-- qualsiasi valore -->
 | LCCN = 
 | OCLC = 
 }}</ref> that although bruxism is present in subjects with Parkinson's this is not associated with the dose of the dopaminergic drug.

While for Merete Bakke et al.<ref name=":0">{{cita libro 
 | autore = Bakke M
 | autore2 = Henriksen T
 | autore3 = Biernat HB
 | autore4 = Dalager T
 | autore5 = Møller E
 | titolo = Interdisciplinary recognizing and managing of drug-induced tardive oromandibular dystonia: two case reports
 | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6230632/pdf/CCR3-6-2150.pdf
 | volume = 
 | opera = Clin Case Rep
 | anno = 2018
 | editore = John Wiley & Sons Ltd
 | città =  Hoboken, New Jersey, USA
 | ISBN = 
 | DOI = 10.1002/ccr3.1548
 | PMID = 30455910
 | PMCID = PMC6230632
 | oaf = Y<!-- qualsiasi valore -->
 | LCCN = 
 | OCLC = 
 }}</ref> exposure to dopamine receptor blocking agents such as antipsychotics, antitussives and antiemetics can induce dystonia including bruxism making the differential diagnosis between similar and possibly related disorders such as Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, Tourette's syndrome, temporomandibular disorders, nocturnal bruxism.
[[File:IMG0103.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': A patient suffering from severe diurnal and nocturnal bruxism|200px]]